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Tapioca (; ) is a starch extracted from the of the cassava plant ( Manihot esculenta, also known as manioc), a species native to the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, but which has now spread throughout parts of the world such as West Africa and Southeast Asia. It is a perennial shrub adapted to the hot conditions of tropical lowlands. Cassava copes better with poor soils than many other food plants.
Tapioca is a staple food for millions of people in tropical countries. It provides only carbohydrate food value, and is low in protein, , and minerals. In other countries, it is used as a thickening agent in various manufactured foods.
The cassava plant has either red or green branches with blue spindles on them. The root of the green-branched variant requires treatment to remove linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside occurring naturally in the plant, which otherwise may be converted into cyanide.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, "Roots, tubers, plantains, and bananas in human nutrition," Rome, 1990, Ch. 7 "Toxic substances and antinutritional factors." Document available online at http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E00.htm#Contents . Ch. 7 appears at http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E08.htm#Cassava%20toxicity . (Accessed 25 June 2011.) Konzo (also called mantakassa) is a paralytic disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava.
In Brazil's north and northeast, traditional community-based tapioca production is a byproduct of manioc flour production from cassava roots. In this process, the manioc (after treatment to remove toxicity) is ground to a pulp with a small hand- or diesel-powered mill. This masa is then squeezed to dry it out. The wet masa is placed in a long woven tube called a tipiti. The top of the tube is secured while a large branch or lever is inserted into a loop at the bottom and used to stretch the entire implement vertically, squeezing a starch-rich liquid out through the weave and ends. This liquid is collected, and the microscopic starch grains in it are allowed to settle into the bottom of the container. The supernatant liquid is then poured off, leaving behind a wet starch sediment that needs to be dried and results in the fine-grained tapioca starch powder similar in appearance to corn starch. Commercially, the starch is processed into several forms: hot soluble powder, meal, pre-cooked fine or coarse flakes, rectangular sticks, and spherical "pearls." Pearls are the most widely available shape; sizes range from about 1 mm to 8 mm in diameter, with 2–3 mm being the most common.
Flakes, sticks, and pearls must be soaked well before cooking to rehydrate, absorbing water up to twice their volume. After rehydration, tapioca products become leathery and swollen. Processed tapioca is usually white, but sticks and pearls may be colored. Traditionally, the most common color applied to tapioca has been brown, but recently pastel colors have been available. Tapioca pearls are generally opaque when raw but become translucent when cooked in boiling water.
Brazil, Thailand, and Nigeria are the world's largest cassava producers. Currently, Thailand accounts for about 60 percent of worldwide exports.
All process water streams contain some amount of sulfur dioxide to control the growth of microbes. Dried starch provides a shelf-stable product. For example, uncooked, dried tapioca pearls have at least a 2-year shelf life stability, whereas freshly cooked pearls may last ten days in the refrigerator. This difference is accounted to the water activity difference between the dried and wet product, the latter introducing a much more favorable condition for microbes to grow.
A typical Indonesian tapioca factory in 2011 produces wastewater with three times the allowed amount of cyanides. The bigger issues relative to regulatory limits are the total suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand values. As a result, the main proposed treatment methods include anaerobic digestion (producing methane-rich biogas), as fertilizer, and possible future reuse of the starch within. (An aerobic treatment system has been successful run in Thailand in 2004.) As of 2023, the technology to recycle the suspended starch granules in tapioca starch wastewater has become mature enough under the name of "liquid sugar". It is expected to create more money-value compared to biogas.
To make casabe, the starchy root of bitter cassava is ground to a pulp, then squeezed to expel a milky, bitter liquid called yare. This carries the poisonous substances with it out of the pulp. Traditionally, this squeezing is done in a sebucan, an 8 to long, tube-shaped, pressure strainer, woven in a characteristic helical pattern from Arecaceae Leaf. The sebucan usually is hung from a tree branch or ceiling pole, and it has a closed bottom with a loop that is attached to a fixed stick or lever, which is used to stretch the sebucan. When the lever is pushed down, stretching the sebucan, the helical weaving pattern causes the strainer to squeeze the pulp inside. This is similar to the action of a Chinese finger trap. The pulp is spread in thin, round cakes about in diameter on a budare to roast or toast.
Thin and crisp cakes of casabe are often broken apart and eaten like crackers. Like bread, casabe can be eaten alone or with other dishes. Thicker casabe usually are eaten slightly moistened. A sprinkle of a few drops of liquid is enough to transform a dry casabe into soft, smooth bread.
The pearls are known as sābudānā in the Indian subcontinent; they are used for sweet and savory dishes, such as sabudana khichri. In Brazil, the pearls are cooked with wine or other liquid to add flavor and are called sagu.
In contrast, making starch pearls uses a different process of roasting. To form the pearls, the tapioca grit can be cut or extruded into the shape of pearls, either small () or large (). The pearls are subjected to a form of heat-moisture treatment, which can extend shelf life up to 2 years.
Tapioca pearls have many unique properties that contribute to texture and mouth feel. Many of these physical properties are a result of its starch composition and are significantly affected by processing. Tapioca pearls are characteristically soft and chewy, with a prominent elastic texture and translucent appearance.
The whole, unprocessed cassava root also has several culinary uses throughout South America.
A regional dessert called sagu is also made in Southern Brazil from tapioca pearls traditionally cooked with cinnamon and cloves in red wine, although other fruit flavors may be used. The cassava root is known by different names throughout the country: mandioca in the North, Central-West, and São Paulo; macaxeira in the Northeast; aipim in the Southeast and South.
The fine-grained tapioca starch is called polvilho, and it is classified as either "sweet" or "sour." Sour polvilho is commonly used in dishes such as pão de queijo or "cheese bread," in which the starch is mixed with a hard cheese, usually matured Minas cheese (could be substituted by Parmesan cheese), eggs and butter and baked in the oven. The final result is an aromatic, chewy, and often crusty kind of bread that is ubiquitous across the country. Sweet polvilho is commonly used in cookies or cakes.
Specifically in rural Cuba early in Spanish rule, tapioca's popularity grew because it was easy to cultivate the crop and to transport it to nearby Spanish settlements, eventually influencing the way land and people were divided in that early imperial era.
Commercially prepared tapioca has many uses. Tapioca powder is commonly used as a thickener for soups and other liquid foods. It is also used as a binder in pharmaceutical tablets and natural paints. The flour is used to make tender breads, cakes, biscuits, cookies, and other delicacies. Tapioca flakes are used to thicken the filling of made with fruits having a high water content.
A typical recipe for tapioca jelly can be made by washing two tablespoonfuls of tapioca, pouring a pint of water over it, and soaking it for three hours. The mixture is placed over low heat and simmered until quite clear. If too thick, a little boiling water can be added. It can be sweetened with white sugar, flavored with coconut milk or a little wine, and eaten alone or with cream.
Cilok is a tapioca dumpling snack. Tapai is made by fermenting large blocks with a yeast-like bacteria culture to produce a sweet and slightly alcoholic dessert. Further fermentation releases more liquids and alcohol, producing Tuak, a sour alcoholic beverage.
The cultivation of the plant is also extensively present in the Malay Peninsula, where in the hands of the Chinese, cassava tubers weighing from are first scraped and then washed carefully. By being passed between rollers, they are reduced to a pulp which is again carefully washed, then shaken up with water. This causes the fecula to separate and pass through a very fine sieve, resulting in flour. The flour is repeatedly washed and then placed on mats to bleach via sun exposure and air. Different applications may be applied here to give rise to the popular and loved tapioca pearls in bubble tea beverages, also known as boba. The pearl tapioca is achieved by placing the flour in a cradle-shaped frame covered with canvas, where it's slightly moistened and rotated to be granulated. Finally, it is dried in the sun, then over the fire in a greased iron pan, and ready for the market.
Tapioca pearls are used to make Sabudana khichdi, pakoda, paratha in Maharashtra, which is commonly eaten during vrat (fasting). Indians generally soak it overnight or 6-8 hours in before cooking.
Cassava is referred to as Tapioca in Indian English usage. Cassava is called kappa or maracheeni in Malayalam.
It was introduced in 1880-1885 AD by the then Maharaja of Travancore, Vishakham Thirunal Rama Varma after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.Saraswathy Nagarajan, "How tapioca came to Travancore" , The Hindu, June 27, 2019
Tapioca is widely consumed across Kerala. It is taken as breakfast or as a staple food. It is boiled (after skinning and cutting it into large pieces of about long or into small cubes) in water till adequately cooked, and the water is drained off. Once cooked, it can be mixed with grated coconut, chili, salt, turmeric, etc., then steamed and mashed into a dry pudding. If desired, this can be garnished with oil with mustard, onion, curry leaves, etc. Tapioca pieces (chendan kappa) are often eaten with simple chili sauce (a paste of green/red chili, shallots, garlic, salt, and oil).
Mashed tapioca is paired with meat or fish curry, especially sardines, as a delicacy in Kerala. Another popular combination is mashed tapioca with dried salted sardines directly cooked on charcoal and green chili.
Tapioca can be stored for extended periods by parboiling, drying it after skinning, and slicing it into 0.5 cm thick pieces. This is called unakka kappa (dried tapioca). Tapioca chips, thinly sliced tapioca wafers, similar to potato chips, are also extremely popular.
In Tamil language, the roots of tapioca are called maravalli kizhangu and are used to prepare chips. Tapioca pearls are referred to as "javvarisi" in Tamil. Most of the delicacies are cooked from this form of tapioca because it is easier to handle than the raw root itself. Tapioca is cultivated more in several districts, providing steady income to farmers in Tamil Nadu. Tapioca can be consumed raw (after removing the skins/outer cover) or boiled for various dishes or snacks.
In Nagaland and Mizoram in Northeast India, tapioca is eaten as a snack. It is usually boiled with a bit of salt in water after skinning it, or snacks are made by drying the tapioca after cutting it. It is then powdered into flour and turned into dough to either make a fired or baked biscuit. In their local dialect, they call it kuri aloo, meaning "wood potato." All groups of society eat these chips as a delicacy. The skin of the tapioca, which is not edible for humans, is kept aside to prepare food for domesticated pigs.
In Assam, sabudana is also used as a substitute diet against boiled rice (bhaat) for the sick, elderly, or infirm for easy digestion and strength.
In Lagos, cassava is processed into tapioca which is cooked in coconut milk and sugar; this can be eaten as a breakfast meal or as a dessert at parties or dinner. This is called mengau.
The Igbos of Eastern Nigeria add palm oil and other seasonings to boiled and grated cassava, a dish called abacha.
People of the Niger Delta extract starch from cassava cooked into a starch eaten with pepper soup.
In Ghana, cassava is peeled, boiled until tender, and pounded in a large wooden mortar and pestle until it becomes homogeneous. This is called fufu. It is eaten with soup.
Tapioca is also widely available in its dried forms and is used in some countries to make tapioca pudding.
Tapioca starch, used commonly for shirts and garments before ironing, may be sold in bottles of natural gum starch to be dissolved in water or in .
The low amylose and low residual content, combined with the high molecular weight of its amylose, make tapioca a useful starting material for modification into a variety of specialty products. Tapioca starch applications in specialty products have become increasingly popular. The effects of additives on thermal transitions and physical and chemical properties can affect the quality and storage stability of tapioca-based products.
Salt is often added to starch-based products to enhance flavor and functionality, as it can increase the gelatinization temperature of tapioca starch and delay the retrogradation of the gels formed upon cooling. Cations, particularly Na+ and Ca2+, can interact electrostatically with the oxygen atoms in the glucose molecule of the starch polymer. This interaction induces an antiplasticizing effect and increases competition for available water, increasing the glass transition temperature of the gelatinized molecule.
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